Introduction and Purpose of Vedic and laukik Literature
Vedic Literature
– The language in which the inhabitants of the Saptasindhu region located in the northwestern part of
India[1]
were expressed orally is called Vedic Sanskrit. This language carried a
valuable literary tradition which was also full of religious and laukik themes. Vedic literature is very
useful in understanding the tendencies of the immediate society. In the
religious topics of Vedic literature, sacrifices, gods,
their nature, distinctions etc. come,
then in the laukik topics human desires,
crises and their prevention, the nature of
society, medicine, charity, There are marriages etc. They give an understanding of various aspects
of society. The time of development of Vedic literature was 6000 BC. From 800
BC Considered upto. In this period, the development of literature is seen in
four stages –
1. Samhitas – Samhitas are a collection of Vedic mantras. There are
four main forms –
1) Rigvedasamhita
2) Yajurvedasamhita
3) Samavedasamhita
4) Atharvavedasamhita
These were divided keeping in mind the work of the four
Ritvijas (Yagna Organizers) working in Vedic Yagna. There are these four
ritvijas in the Yajnas –
1) Hota
2) Adhvaryu
3) Udgata
4) Brahma
Hota calls
the gods in the Yagya and praises the Yagya-gods while reciting hymns. The Rigveda Samhita contains a collection of mantras useful for the
use of Hota. The work of Adhvaryu is
the ritual execution of the Yajna. The mantras required for this are compiled
in the Yajurveda Samhita. The job of
the Udgata is to recite hymns in the Yagya. He pleases
the gods in a melodious voice. For its use, the mantras of the Rigvedasamhita
have been compiled in the Samavedasamhita. He
inspects the Ritvijya called Brahma completely, so that there is no error. Though he knows all the Vedas, he has his own special Vedas, the Atharvaveda-Samhita. These codes are
studied separately in different families, as a result they
have many branches. Only a few branches of the Vedic Samhitas are available
today.
2. Brahmana - The main purpose of the Brahmanical texts is to explain the
Yagyas by the mantras of
the Samhitas. Many moral, social and political things have
also come in this context. Vedic religion has been discussed in these texts.
The Brahmanical texts explaining each branch of the Vedic Samhitas are
separate.
3. Aranyakas – The Aranyakas associated with the Brahmanical texts
were composed in the forests. The thought of the sages about the origin and
significance of Vedic
rituals, rituals was
placed in the Aranyakas. Like the Brahmanic texts, they were written in simple
prose. The Aranyakas of the branches of different Vedic Samhitas are also
different. An attempt has been made in these Aranyakas to engage the
ritualistic masses towards knowledge. They are related to Vanaprastha Ashram.
4. Upanishads – The Upanishads come in the final stage of the
development of Vedic literature. Philosophy was discussed in them, although this
scripture has been found here and there in the Samhitas and
Aranyakas even before. In the Upanishads, very profound things have been said
in the form of guru-disciple dialogues. The
mysteries of the soul, Brahman and the world have been revealed in these
discussions. Being in the last part of Vedic literature and publishing the
developed form of Vedic philosophy, they are also called Vedanta.
Vedanga texts were created to explain the original
Vedic literature and explain their use. There
are six Vedangas which are as follows –
1) Shiksha
(method of pronunciation)
2) Kalpa (Rituals and Ethics)
3) Chhanda (determination and naming of verse mantras based on
the enumeration of letters)
4) Nirukta (interpretation or interpretation of Vedic words)
5) Vyakaran
(etymology of words)
6) Jyotisha (representation of the time of sacrifice).
They are kept in Vedic literature for utility, although the texts related to these
subjects were written in laukik Sanskrit language. The
Vedangas are often formulaic and highlight the abundance of Vedic rituals in
short sentences. The kalpa texts mainly related to rituals are kept in the
Sutra-literature. Their main four distinctions are –
1) Shrauta-Sutras (Those who
explain the process of Vedic Yagyas)
2) Grihya-Sutras (describing rituals related to personal and family
life)
3) Dharma-Sutras (describing religious and social rules, duties and rights)
4) Shulva-sutras (measuring the Yajnavedika and describing its
construction).
Introduction to the major texts of Vedic literature
1. Rigveda – Rigveda is the world's first systematic available
text. The Rigveda Samhita is a collection of the Aryans living in the
Saptasindhu region who expressed their religious thoughts and philosophical
feelings in poetic form. The cultural consciousness that existed at the time of
Rigveda is still present in the Indian-psyche. This confirms the continuous
flow of the Sanskrit stream. There are many opinions about the composition of
Rigveda. The traditional Indian view is that the Vedas are Apaurusheya, that is, no man or person
has composed them. Along with the mantras compiled in the Vedic Samhitas,
there is also a mention of
mantra-seer, sage, deva and verse. Modern scholars disagree. According to him,
they were composed in the same way as other Sanskrit texts. On the basis of
this opinion, he tried to decide the time of Rigveda. They themselves are not
unanimous about time. Different scholars have considered its period to be
different. 6000 BC From 800 BC It has been considered as its time. According to
most scholars, it was composed in 2000 BC. Happened around. According to some
western scholars, the Rigvedic Aryans used to fight with the people of the
Indus Valley Civilization. The Rigveda mentions Pani, Dasa
and Ari as enemies of the Aryans. According to him, this throws light on the
period of composition of Rigveda.
The Rig Veda contains a collection of scattered mantras of his time, which were prevalent in different sage
families and whose tradition was going on in those sage families. The Rigveda
has been called Samhita because of this collection. It contains a compilation
of hymns. The entire Rigveda is divided into 10 mandalas. There are many hymns
in each mandala. There are 1028 hymns in the entire Rigveda. A collection of
hymns is called a sukta, which is associated with a
particular deity or theme. The mandalas are divided on the basis of the
families of the sages. Many mandalas have only collections of richas recited by
a single sage or in his family. Many mantras have also been originated
by sages, like Lopamudra, Apala, Romsha etc. The total number of
verses is 10580.
The size of the first and tenth mandalas of this Veda is comparatively
large. Among them are the compositions of sages of many dynasties. These
mandalas have been considered as later works on the basis of subject matter and
language. It is in these mandalas that the philosophical and cosmic views of
the Aryans are expressed. Other mandalas are ancient. Mantras related to Soma
have been collected in the ninth mandala. The
remaining mandalas are the compositions of the sages of each Gotra or lineage;
hence they are also called Vansh-Mandals. The verses of the
seventh mandala are considered to be the oldest.
Although there were twenty-one branches of the Rigveda, only the Shakala, Ashvalayana
and Shankhayana branches are found today. The Rigveda has a long intellectual
tradition of the Aryans. Religious, social and
philosophical themes have also been represented in this tradition. The
knowledge of the development of India's oldest culture requires following the
Rigveda. The number of hymns written from a religious point of view is
definitely the highest in this Samhita. The Suktas of Rigveda
prominently offer prayers to Indra and the Agni deity.
Among the other deities, apart from Savita, Rudra, Mitra, Varuna, Surya, Marut etc., there is also Usha Devi. Not only this, the intangible deity in the
form of Manyu (anger) has also been prayed for.
As the regulative element in these deities, the sages of Rigveda have
described God as the controller of the world,
which they have also called Purusha and Hiranyagarbha. It is said
in the Hiranyagarbha Sukta that at the beginning of the world, Hiranyagarbha
was born, who was the lord of all the pastures and it was
he who took heaven
and earth all. The vast mountains and the solemn ocean lie under the discipline
of that Hiranyagarbha-form Supreme Soul (Prajapati).
In the Rigveda Samhita, the eyes of the sages have also fallen on worldly
subjects. It also mentions the defects of dyoot-kreeda,
the sound of mandukas, the method of
marriage, the glory of charity, etc. It seems that the
sages did not neglect temporal matters by engrossing themselves in the
discussion of religion and philosophy. The fine spirit of the Vedic sages is
also seen in the Suktas of Usha. These hymns are considered to be the source of
later lyricism.
In the Purusha-Sukta, there is a presentation of the process of creation, and in the Nasadiya Sukta, there is
also an indication of the mysteriousness of creation. Before creation, there
was neither truth nor non-existence. There was neither
death nor immortality at that time. At that time, darkness was present
everywhere. In this way, importance was also given to esoteric philosophical
ideas in the Rigveda. There are also many dialogues in the Rigveda, which some people call the initial form of plays. In these hymns, the
dialogues of Pururva-Urvashi and Yama-Yami express the emotions of common folk
life. These dialogues also depict human emotions like love, humour, compassion and heroism.
A reading of the Rigveda gives ample information about the lives of the
then Aryans and slaves. This is where the mutual conflict of both is described.
Where the Aryans were charitable,
generous and devout, the slaves were
condescending, illiberal and atheist. They followed
different practices. Rigveda is a unique book presenting a picture of the
immediate civilization and culture of the Saptasindhu region.
2. Yajurveda - In ancient times, there were a total of 101 branches
of Yajurveda. It has two forms - Krishnayajurveda and Suklayajurveda. The most
famous branch of the Krishnayajurveda is the Taittiriya Samhita and the famous
branch of the Shukla Yajurveda is the Vajasneyi Samhita. Some people call it
the original Yajurveda. It contains only a collection of mantras, while the Samhita of Krishnayajurveda
also mixes the themes of the Brahmin text. Other Samhitas of Krishnajurveda are
Maitrayani, Kathaka, Kapishtal etc.
Their publicity is more in South India.
Yajurveda is a ritualistic Samhita. It contains a collection of mantras
used by Adhvaryu in Yajna. There is also a discussion about these mantras in
the Krishnajurveda, but
the Suklayajurveda is void of these discussions. There are 40 chapters in
Shuklajurveda, in which mantras related to various
sacrifices are compiled. Among these Yagyas, Darshpurnamas,
Agnihotra, Chaturmas, Somayag,
Vajpeya, Rajasuya, Sautramani,
Ashwamedha etc. are prominent. Its sixteenth chapter is called
Rudradadhyaya, in which various forms of Rudra have been
saluted. In the thirty-fourth chapter, there is a prayer for Shivasankalpa. The
thirty-fifth chapter contains the prayer of the ancestors. The last chapter is
important from the philosophical point of view, because in
it God is called the regulator of the world. This chapter comes in the form of
Ishavasyopanishad with some changes. There are very beautiful prayer mantras in
Yajurveda, such as –
Agne nay suptha raaye asmaan vishwani deva vyunani
vidvan.
That is, O Lord of Agni, lead us on the right
path to attain wealth. Oh God, you know all our (good and
bad) actions.
Some
mantras in Yajurveda are poetic and some prose. Yajurveda is more
popular than all other Vedas due to its use in rituals. Most commentators of
the Vedas consider it their first duty to write an explanation on the
Yajurveda.
3. Samaveda – On the basis of information from ancient texts, there
were 1000 branches of Samaveda, but today only three-four branches are available. Among these, the
Kauthum branch is more popular. The mantras of the Samaveda were used in Yagyas with the appropriate tone for invocation to the gods. Therefore, the
Sama mantras are not recited, but sung. The Sama Veda is
versed and except for 75 mantras, the remaining mantras are also available in
the Rigveda. There is a special law of rhythm and tone in the singing of
mantras of Samaveda.
The Samaveda Samhita has two parts - Purvarchaka and Uttararchika. In the
Purvaarchika, there is a
division of mantras as Agniya, Aindra, Pavmana and Aranya-parva. In fact, the
mantras associated with these deities have been kept separately. Uttararchika
has been arranged according to the subjects of Dasaratra, Samvatsar,
Ekah etc. The Samaveda has the highest number of gramgayya
(vocals) songs. Aranyagana used to compile distressed and forbidden ragas.
Therefore, they were not sung in villages. Associated with these two are the
Uhagana and the Oohyagana, respectively, which provide a
sequence of the Sama mantras in sacrificial activities. Thus, it has these four
important songs – Gram, Aranya, Ooh
and Oohy.
The importance of Samaveda is very much from the point of view of music.
This led to the emergence of Indian music. The ragas of the Samaveda evolved
from both religious and cultural songs. Of the many methods of Samgana (which
are prescribed in the Brahmana texts of the Samaveda), only a few remain.
4. Atharvaveda – Atharvaveda has a large compilation of subjects
different from Yajna. It was kept apart from rituals for a long time. Trilogy
means three Vedas, in
which Atharva Veda is not included. But in the Vedic tradition itself it is
called Brahma Veda, that is, it is for the use of a ritologist called Brahma.
In fact, Atharvaveda was called Atharvangiras Veda. That is, it had two sages -
Atharva and Angira.
This Veda is divided into 20 kandas,
which contain hymns and mantras. The number of hymns is 731 and
that of mantras is 5849. Of these, about 1200 mantras have been taken from the
Rigveda Samhita. The sixth part of this Veda is in prose. There is no subject
system in the division of kandas, but there are mantras
related to a single subject in a sukta. The compilation of the initial kandas
is under the special system, because in the first kanda
there are four mantras, in the second kanda with five
mantras, in the third with six mantras, in the fourth kanda with seven mantras and in the fifth kanda with eight or
more mantras have been kept. Of the 142 suktas of the sixth kanda, all three
are mantras. Similarly, in the 118 suktas of the seventh kanda, there are
suktas containing one or two mantras. The fifteenth and sixteenth are in prose.
They look linguistically similar to the Brahmin texts.
It is in the Atharvaveda that worldly matters have been given wide
importance. Therefore, there is a lot of variety in its content. Almost all
aspects of life are touched upon in it,
but especially the immediate beliefs are more revealed in it. In
this order is the representation of the verbs associated with abhichar (Maran,
Mohan, Uchchatan etc.). Spirituality, destruction
of enmity, attainment of health, happiness
of home, increase in agriculture, prevention
of ghosts, destruction of insects, benefit
of favored thing, marriage, commerce,
The worship of ancestors etc. is discussed in the mantras of
Atharvaveda. The comprehensive method of prevention of various diseases by
describing them is given in it. Somewhere there is a prayer for the destruction
of snake-poison, and somewhere a prayer has been made to
the Shami-tree for the prevention of diseases. Somewhere
there is a prayer for a living. Along with the importance of celibacy, a prayer
for harmony has also been made, "I fill your heart with harmony and cordiality. All people should love each other, just as a cow
keeps her calf. The son should follow the father, the mother
should be Vatsalyamayi and the wife should treat her
husband with sweet words. Do not hate brother or brother, nor
have hatred towards sister and sister, everyone should
speak with good thoughts and words of welfare. The twelfth kanda of the
Atharvaveda contains the Bhumi Sukta, which propounds the
importance of the earth. In this it is said – “Mata
bhumih putro'ham prithivyaH” that is, The earth is my
mother, I am her Son.
The
Atharvaveda also contains philosophical hymns that deal with Brahman, Tapa and Asat.
These ideas later developed in the Upanishads. Being an exponent of purely
popular beliefs separate from the mainstream of ordinary Vedic religion,
Atharvaveda has independent importance in Vedic literature.
Brahmin Texts
Indian tradition calls both the Mantra and the Brahmana
the Veda (Mantrabrahmanyorvedanadheyam), but modern thinkers borrow only the
Samhita-part from the Veda. The word Brahman is derived from Brahman, which means associated with the Vedas
(Brahman). Therefore, separate Brahmin texts were written to explain the
branches of the Vedas. Although they are religious in nature, they also include political, social and
philosophical topics. All these topics are linked to the interpretation of
mantras. The development of Vedic rituals can be known from these texts. Apart
from these, mythology related to the creation has also come in the Brahmins. In
fact, the symbolic meanings of the Vedic Samhitas have been elaborated in the
Brahmanas. Among them, there are stories of Matsya
protecting the creation, protecting Shunah Shep from being sacrificed, etc.
Here some narrative has been added to each Yagya law.
There are two Brahmin texts associated with the Rigveda
Samhita, Aitareya and Kaushitki. The first has 40 chapters and the second has
30 chapters. The two have a lot in common with the content. These include
details of Somayaga, Agnihotra,
Rajasuya, Coronation, etc. The Aitareya
Brahmana is the composition of Aitareya Mahidas, while the
Kahoda Kaushitki composed the Kaushitaki Brahmana. Both of them use simple
prose.
The Brahmana texts of both the Madhyandin and Kanva
branches of the Suklayajurveda are named Shatapatha, but the Shatapatha Brahmanas of both
the branches are different. There is a difference in the scheme of chapters.
The Madhyandin Shatapath has 14 Kandas and 100 Chapters, while
the Shatapath of the Kanva branch has 104 chapters and 17 Kandas. The
Shatapatha Brahmana is the largest scripture in Vedic literature after the
Rigveda. It describes Darshpoornmas, Pitriyajna
(Shraddha), Upanayan, Swadhyaya, Ashwamedha,
Sarvamedha etc. Yajnavalkya is considered authentic throughout
the Brahmana text, because it was this sage who attained
the Suklayajurveda by worshipping the sun. In the chapter on Agni-chayan, the sage Shandilya is considered authentic. The Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad is the last part of this Brahmana. Associated with the
Krishnayajurveda is the Taittiriya Brahmana, which is
actually an appendix to the Taittiriya Samhita. There were some inappropriate
subjects left in the Samhita, which have been fulfilled in this Brahmana. In
other Samhitas of this Veda (Kathaka, Maitrayani etc.),
the Brahmin texts are mixed organically. There are three Ashtakas or Kandas in
the Taittiriya Brahmana, in which Yagyas like Agnidhana, Gavamayana, Sautramani
etc. are described.
There are many Brahmins associated with Samaveda, such as Tandya (Panchvinsha), Shadvinsha,
Jaminiya etc. The Tandya Brahmana describes the re-entry of the
Vratyas (the class excluded from the Aryan race) along with ancient fables. In
the Shadvinsha Brahmana there is a chapter called Adbhut
Brahmana associated with miracles and omens. The Jaminiya Brahmana has three
parts and is as important as the Shatapatha. It also contains material from
science. Apart from these, there are many Brahmin texts related to Samaveda,
Daivat, Arsheya, Samvidhana, Vansa, Chandogya, Samhitopanishad, etc. There is a Gopatha Brahmana associated with the
Atharvaveda, which has two parts – Purva Gopath and Uttar
Gopath. It describes the glory of creation, Brahma,
celibacy, Gayatri etc. It also mentions the
trinity (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) along with Omkar. The
seed of cultural elements is also found in the Brahmin texts, such as the interpretation of the creation, Varnashrama-dhrma,
women-glory, hospitality, importance of Yagyas, virtue, vidyavansh etc.
Aranyakas
The Aranyakas were created
in the forests. The sages who lived in the forests tried to find symbols in
them, detaching themselves from Vedic ritualism. The Aranyakas developed as an addendum to the Brahmanas nurtured
spiritualism under the Yajna. This interpretation of karma later developed in
Mimamsa-philosophy, theology and karmavada. Along with the
laying of the Yagyas of the vanaprasthas, the role of the
knowledge of the Upanishads was also prepared in the Aranyakas. The
interpretation of life is characteristic of the Aranyakas.
At present, seven Aranyak texts are available. The
Aranyakaitareya and Kaushitki of the Rigveda are part of the Brahmanical texts
bearing these names. The Yajurveda has three Aranyakas namely Brihadaranyaka, Taittiryaranyak and
Maitrayayayanyarayanka. The Jaminiya and Chandogya Aranyakas of the Samaveda
are found. All of them consider the karma associated with their branches,
as well as the importance of sannyasa-dharma. It is said in
Brihadaranyaka that by knowing this, a man becomes a muni. Knowing the soul, he
becomes a Parivrajaka wishing for Brahmaloka and renounces the son, finance and
the desire of the world and does alms.
Upanishads
The Upanishads are of the greatest importance from the
point of view of propagation in Vedic literature. Their importance is due to
philosophical ideas, from
which they are popular in the country and abroad. Dara Shikoh translated them
into Persian. They were also translated into European languages. The French
philosopher Schopenhauer said, "The Upanishads are consoling both for my
life and for my death."
The number of ancient Upanishads[2]
was 13, but in time their
number increased to more than a century. In the later Upanishads, different
schools of thought revealed the essence of their religions, but their relation cannot be established with the Vedic literature. The
Upanishads, originally developed for philosophical thought in the Vedic
branches, are enumerated as follows:
|
Related to Rigveda |
Aitareya and Kaushitki. |
|
Associated with Krishnayajurveda |
Katha, Shvetashvatara, Maitrayani
(Maitri) and Taittiriya. |
|
Associated with
Shuklajurveda |
Isha and Brihadaranyak. |
|
Associated with Samaveda |
Chandogya and Ken. |
|
Associated with Atharvaveda |
Prashna, Mundaka and Mandukya. |
In the Upanishads, philosophy is often explained
through dialogues. In them, the prestige of life in the body of a man, the origin of the creation from the
soul, the difference between knowledge and ignorance,
the nature of the world and the soul, the
Brahma Tattva etc. have been explained in a very interesting manner. Somewhere
through questions and answers, somewhere through parables, these topics have
been depicted. The Upanishads use both prose and verse. Brihadaranyaka and
Chandogya are the major Upanishads, the rest are small. There are only 12
sentences in the Mandukyopanishad. The Ishopanishad consists of 18 mantras,
which form the fortieth chapter of the Yajurveda. In the
Kathopanishad, the nature of the soul is described in the dialogue of
Yama-Nachiketa. In the Brihadaranyaka Brahman is represented by the
Janaka-Yajnavalkya Eristic. In this Upanishad, the story
of Yajnavalkya's wise wife Maitreyi and Gargi who argued
with her is revealed, which reveals the wise women of that era.
Based on the Upanishads, the philosophy of Vedanta
developed, as a result
of which the Brahmasutra was composed by Badarayana. The Gita, located in the
Bhishmaparva of Mahabharata, also presents the philosophy of the Upanishads in
a mythological style. The path to attaining supreme happiness has been
explained in the Upanishads. The characteristics of Brahman are Sat, Chit, and Ananda. These three are duly explained in the Upanishads.
Shankaracharya introduced monism by writing
commentaries on the main 10 Upanishads. Similarly, the Upanishads were
interpreted in different sects of Vedanta in their own way. The Upanishads are
full of invaluable gems of philosophy.
Vedanga
With the passage of laukik Sanskrit in place of Vedic Sanskrit over time, it became difficult to pronounce Vedic mantras and understand the meaning.
Yaska has said that people who experienced difficulty in understanding the
Vedic meanings composed Nirukta and other Vedangas. The six parts of the Vedas
were considered - Shiksha, kalpa, Vyakaran, nirukta, Jyotisha and Chhanda.
Only a person who understood these could pronounce the Vedas correctly,
understand their meaning and perform Yagya. The texts of all
these scriptures were written in laukik Sanskrit, because the reason for their development was the end of the use of
Vedic Sanskrit. Their period was 800 BC. Starts
from.
1. Shiksha – It is the science of pronunciation, which prescribes the pronunciation of
vowels. Its expansion is found in the Pratishakhya texts. They are called
Pratishakhyas because of the pronunciation of different branches of the Vedas.
Rikpratishakhya is a Shaunaka-composed treatise, which discusses the junctions of letters, characters and vowels of the Rigveda. Similarly, there are Pratishakhyas of other Vedas, which characterize the pronunciations of those Vedas. These are all in
formula form.
2. Kalpa – It is mainly the Vedang which renders Vedic rituals. Kalpa means law. Yagya-related
provisions are given in the Kalpa Sutras. There are four
divisions of the kalpa, which are called Shrautasutra,
Grihasutra, Dharmasutra and Shulvasutra.
These four are separate for different Vedas. In the Shrautasutras, there is a
law of Shrautayajnas, such as Darshpurnamas, Agnihotra, Chaturmasya, Vajpeya,
Atiratra, Pitrumedha etc. At present,
Shrautasutras like Ashvalayana, Shankhayana (Rigveda), Katyayana
(Suklayajurveda), Jaminiya (Samaveda), Vaitan (Atharva Veda) etc. are
available. The Grihya Sutras describe the rites and Grihayagas that take place
in the Grihyagni, such as Upanayana, marriage, etc. There are about 20 Grihya Sutras associated with all the Vedas.
The Dharmasutras describe Manava-dharma, Samaja-dharma, rajadharma
and purusharthas. At this time six Dharmasutras are found - Gautama, Apastamba, Vasistha, Baudhayana,
Hiranyakeshi and Vishnudharmasutra. These Dharmasutras are
the basis of later Smritis. Shulva means thread of measuring. In
these sutras, the construction of Yajnavedika etc. has been described with the
help of geometry.
3. Vyakaran – It has been called the mouth of the Vedas. In this
scripture, the etymology of terms is explained by dividing them into nature and
suffixes. A very long tradition of Vyakaran was carried on by Indra etc., but the remnants of
that tradition are found only in quotations here and there. The pioneer of the
first available Vyakaran treatise is Panini, who wrote the Vyakaran of both Vedic and laukik Sanskrit languages as Ashtadhyayi. Vyakaran
protects the Vedas and he thinks of Padashuddhi. At present, Panini's
Ashtadhyayi is the representative text of Vyakaran, on
which a rich tradition of commentaries is found.
4. Nirukta – It means interpretation. The purpose of Nirukta is to
systematically explain the meaning of Vedic words. At present, the
Yask-composed Nirukta is the only Nirukta available. The collection of Vedic
words is received in the form of Nighantu (five chapters). The same is
explained by Yaska in the 14 chapters of Nirukta. Yaska period 800 BC
Supposedly. Nirukta is the key to Vedartha knowledge.
5. Jyotisha –
This is the Vedang that determines the time. Vedic Yagyas require a period of time and they are performed only during
a specific period of time and only then do they yield results. Jyotisha decides this. The division of time, the determination of the
muhurat, the determination of the movement of planets and
constellations etc. are the subjects of Jyotisha itself.
Lagdhacharya wrote a book called Vedang Jyotisha for these works. It has two
versions – Arch Jyotish (associated with Rigveda) which has 36 verses and
Yajush Jyotish (associated with Yajurveda), which has 43 verses.
6. Chhanda – This is a useful Vedanga for the correct
pronunciation of versed Vedic mantras. This leads to knowledge of the steps of
Vedic mantras. Knowledge of this is essential for the pronunciation of Vedic
mantras. This proves the importance of the Chhand. The seven main Chhandas used in the Vedas are, Gayatri (three stages of eight letters), Anushtup (four steps of eight
letters), Trishtup (four steps of 11 letters), Brihati, Jagati,
Pankti, Ushnik. chhand-shaastr By knowing
the scriptures, the arrangement of the steps of the Vedic mantras can be
understood and there can be a proper pause at the time of mantra-recital.
Over a period of time, some appendix texts were also
written for proper knowledge of the Vedas and Vedangas. These texts are called addendum-texts. In
these, gods, sages, verses, suktas, etc. have been enumerated. All the Vedas have separate indexes.
The indexes of the Rigveda were written by Shaunak. The versed book
Brihaddevata is available as a index of the gods of the Rigveda. It is a very
important book. It has eight chapters and 1204 verses.
Similarly,
Riksaranukramani, Chhando'anukramani,
Arshanukramani, etc. are addendum-texts. The addendum-texts to the
Yajurveda were composed by Katyayan. The addendum-texts to the Atharvaveda hold all-pernunciation importance. It contains
details of the gods, sages, suktas,
and mantras of each kanda of Atharvaveda. These addendum-texts have been making an important contribution in protecting the Vedas.
Due to these, not even a single letter has been reduced and increased in the
Vedas. Interpretations of the Vedic literature, developed in the first phase of
Sanskrit literature, continued for a long time in the later ages. There have
been different opinions regarding interpretations and they have also been
translated into different languages. In the modern era, good editions of these
Vedic texts have been published with interpretations and translations.
Introduction to laukik literature and its
importance
Ramayana, Mahabharata and Smriti texts
Ramayana and Mahabharata are such great texts of
Sanskrit language, on
which a large literary wealth of India is dependent. Both these texts were
written during the junction period of Vedic and laukik
literature. These influenced not only Sanskrit literature but also Indian
society. Ramayana and Mahabharata have had a huge impact on ordinary Indian
life as well. Any study of Indian society is incomplete without following these
great texts. Both the texts have given plots to many poets and playwrights,
hence they are called subvival poetry.
Although the influence of the two texts is similar,
they are different in many respects. The Ramayana is called Adikavya, because it introduced the stream of
poetry in laukik Sanskrit, different from Vedic Sanskrit.
Its author is called Valmiki Adikavi. On the other hand, Mahabharata is called
history, whose author is Vyasa.
General
Introduction to Ramayana
Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana, wrote the first
ornate poem and set an example for all later Indian poets (madhumayabhanitinam
margdarshi maharshiH). It is said that on seeing the incident of a Nishad
killing a crouch bird in sports, Valmiki's heart was moved with compassion and the following verse burst
from his mouth itself:
Mā nisāda pratiṣṭhṃ tvamāgamaḥ śāśvātiḥ samaḥ.
yatkroñchamithunādēkamavadhiḥ kāmamohitam॥
Maharishi Valmiki's speech was bursting in Anushtup
verse, which was a verse in the laukik Sanskrit language. In that speech, he wrote the story of the ideal man
Rama. The story of Rama is described in great detail in Ramayana, where
according to the need, the poet Valmiki has given Avaantar stories and has also
described nature comprehensively. Valmiki's vision is so subtle and the power
of imagination is so fertile that he has greatly expanded each scene.
Ramayana is divided into seven kandas –
1. Balakand
2. Ayodhyakand
3. Aranyakand
4. Kishkindhakand
5. Sunderkand
6. Yuddhakaand
7. Uttarkand
Each kanda is divided into sargas. Later Sanskrit epics
have also divided epics into cantos on this ideal of Ramayana and established
the characteristics of the epic. On this basis, Kalidasa, Bharavi, Magha
etc. composed epics. There are 24,000 verses in Ramayana.
There are three versions of Ramayana available, which are prevalent in different
regions of India. After reviewing all the three versions, a specific version of
Ramayana has emerged from Baroda.
Scholars have discussed a lot about the composition of
Ramayana. It was composed before Mahabharata,
because the entire story of Ramayana is described in Mahabharata
and some places related to Rama's life have been seen as pilgrimages there. The
Ramayana is also hinted at by Jain and Buddhist texts. Thus the Ramayana was
composed in the fifth century BC.
Cultural Value of Ramayana
The cultural significance of Ramayana is very high.
Valmiki has directed the ideal and eternal values of life through this epic. In
this, he has presented an
ideal form of relationship like king, citizen, son,
mother, wife, husband, servant etc. The character of Rama is as an ideal great
man, who is truthful, determined,
benevolent, characterful, learned, powerful, handsome,
prajapalak and patient man. Valmiki has revealed his qualities in
great detail. Similarly, Valmiki has also established the ideal and proud
wife-form of Sita. Rama's fraternal love has been expressed in Ramayana in very
simple and soulful words-
Deshe deshe kalatrani deshhe deshe cha bandhvaH.
tantu desham na pashyami yatra bhraata sahodaraH॥
In any country a wife can be obtained and fraternity
can be established anywhere, but sibling can not be obtained anywhere.
Rama's character is so benevolent and lofty that he
preaches to Vibhishana on his body rites after Ravana's death. They say,
"Vibhishan! With the death of the enemy, hatred ends. Our hostility also
ended. Now Ravan's body is the same for me as it is for you –
mārānāntāni vārāṇī nirvṛtaṃ naḥ prājānam.
Kriyatamasya sanskarō mamapyesha yatha tav॥
Bharata's detachment to the kingship,
Lakshmana's fraternal service and Hanuman's devotion to
self-esteem are all three of the highest ideals of life found in the Ramayana.
The purpose of poetry is to preach with sweetness. Valmiki has completely
succeeded in that. The poet Valmiki becomes engrossed in his descriptions of
nature. His analogies captivate the heart. The poet compares Sita, who is
mourning in the Ashoka Vatika, to a memory full of doubt, unfulfilled
faith, hope destroyed, perfection
with obstacles, a corrupted intellect and fame destroyed
by public condemnation. This awakens the feeling of compassion in our hearts.
Sanskrit poets and poets of all Indian languages were
also inspired by Ramayana to write Ram Katha and the influence of Ramayana was
also established abroad. The most famous story of the entire Asian continent is
the Rama-story.
General Introduction to Mahabharata
Mahabharata, composed by Maharishi Vyasa, is the
largest text of Sanskrit literature,
containing one lakh verses. That is why it is also called
Shatasahasri Samhita. The Mahabharata basically describes the struggle between
the Kauravas and the Pandavas, but it is a wonderful
encyclopedia of all aspects of ancient Indian knowledge of life as contextually
expounded. Its festival of peace has been solving the problems of life for
ages. This history book has been considered as a religious book by ancient Indians
and it has been called the Pancham Veda. The Bhagavad Gita, the world-famous
book that solves philosophical problems, is an excerpt
from Bhishmaparva of Mahabharata. The Mahabharata is significant because of its
vastness and because it covers all the subjects of the world. It has been said
about it –
Dharmē charthe ca kāmē ca mokṣe ca bharatarshabh.
yadihāsti tadanyatr yannehāsti na tatt kvacit॥
The things that have been said in this book about these
four goals of Dhrma, Artha, Kama and Moksha are found elsewhere, but those which are not in
it are not found anywhere. This statement proves the comprehensiveness of the
critical subject of Mahabharata.
Like the Ramayana, the Mahabharata has also been a
mythological book for Sanskrit poets. Based on its main story and anecdotes,
Sanskrit poets have created many types of literary creations
like poetry, drama, champu, katha, aakhyaayika etc. in different periods. The influence of Mahabharata is also
present on the literature of countries like Indonesia, Java, Sumatra etc. The
people there also entertain themselves with the acting of the characters of
Mahabharata as well as get education.
Maharishi Vedavyasa is also named Krishnadwaipayana. He
was closely related to the characters of Mahabharata. In the Adi-Parva of
Mahabharata, it is said that Krishnadwaipayana composed Mahabharata with
continuous hard work for three years. Modern scholars of history say that the
Mahabharata received the present form of one lakh verses in the evolution of
many centuries. Vyasa collected the stories of ancient times and composed the
original of this book. It has three phases of development- Jai, Bharat and Mahabharata. The book Jai
had 8,800 verses. In this, the victory of Pandavas was described. In the second
phase, a book called Bharat was presented, which had
24,000 verses. It did not contain anecdotes. The description of the war was the
main theme. This India was read out by Vaishampayan and narrated to Janmejaya.
When anecdotes etc. were added to this book and it was given the form of a
comprehensive encyclopedia, it was named Mahabharata. The
same Mahabharata was narrated by Lomaharshana's son Ugrashrava to the sages
Shaunkadi in Naimisharanya. These anecdotes were literary versions of ancient
folklore. This situation took a million verses into it. It became a vast
storehouse of Indian religion and culture.
Two texts of Mahabharata are found - one of North India, the other of South India. There is a
big difference between the two in terms of verse number, order of chapters and
location of narratives. A version confirming the purest form of Mahabharata has
been published from Pune. The Mahabharata was divided into festivals, which are 18 in number - Adi, Sabha, Van, Virat, Udyog, Bhishma, Drona, Karna,
Shalya, Sauptik, Stree,
Shanti, Anushashana, Ashwamedhika, Ashramvasika, Mausal, Mahaprassthana
and Svargaarohan. These festivals are re-divided into
chapters. These describe the origin of Kauravas and Pandavas to the Pandavas
going to heaven. This is the basic story of Mahabharata. It describes many
poignant episodes, such as the dyoot-kreeda, the insult of Draupadi, the disguise of the
Pandavas in the royal assembly of Virata, the war between
the Kauravas and the Pandavas, etc.
It describes the struggle of Kauravas and Pandavas for
the throne of Hastinapur. The Pandavas got half the kingdom from the Kauravas
and performed Rajasuya Yajna, but the jealous Kauravas defeated the Pandavas in gambling and forced
them to go to the forest for thirteen years as per the condition. In the last
year, the condition of anonymity was laid that if the Pandavas were detected
during this period, they would have to accept exile again
for the same number of years. The Pandavas demand their kingdom on successfully
fulfilling this condition, but they are not given the
kingdom. That is why there is a war of Mahabharata which lasts for 18 days. In
this, the Kauravas are annihilated. According to the mention, Sanjaya described
the war for the blind Dhritarashtra while sitting at a place. At the beginning
of the battle, Krishna inspires the depressed Arjuna to fight and gives the
invaluable sermon of the Gita. This book called Bhagavad Gita, which inspires
action, is so important that from ancient times to modern times, it has been
influencing philosophers of the country and abroad.
The composition of Mahabharata is believed to be before
Buddha-Mahavira. This text is mentioned for the first time in the Asvalayana
Grihya Sutra. It was done in India. It was spread in South India in the first
century AD.
Cultural Significance of Mahabharata
The importance of Mahabharata is very much from the
cultural point of view. It is complete literature in itself. There is a
comprehensive and serious presentation of the topics of politics in its Shanti
Parva. Its characters have been made the basis of preaching by Vyasa, so that people can learn duty. It is a
religious text in which every category of man can find material for the
emergence of his life. Banabhatta has called Vyasa the creator of poets,
because poets have been inspired by the Mahabharata to create
poetry. There is a beautiful coordination of action, knowledge and devotion in
the Gita. In the Mahabharata, Vyasa has said that religion is eternal.
Therefore, it should not be abandoned under any circumstances out of fear or
greed. It has been said in Shanti Parva that when Raj Dharma deteriorates, the
state and society are annihilated. The process of taking human life
towards salvation through Dharma, Artha and Kama is well
described in the Mahabharata. Therefore,
it is an inexhaustible repository of all subjects like
religion, politics, philosophy etc.
Bhagvadgita
The Gita, which is spread in 18 chapters and 700 verses
under the Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata, is world famous as an independent book.
At the beginning of the war, Arjuna becomes depressed by imagining the terrible
outcome of the war, then
Krishna preaches to inspire him to work. Being preached by Lord Krishna, it is
originally called Bhagavad Gita. Although the purpose of inducing Arjuna to war
was fulfilled in just two or three chapters, the Gita grew
in size due to Arjuna's answers to pertinent questions to solve the practical
and spiritual problems of life.
The chapters of the Gita have been called yoga. In the
Gita, yoga means even-view (samatvam yoga uchyate) or to act skillfully (yogah
karmasu kaushalam) so that there is no bondage. In the Gita, three
yogas have been mainly propounded - Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga and Bhakti Yoga. These three are interrelated
and complementary.
Karmayoga means performing one's assigned duties, working without expectation of material
gain. It has also been called 'Nishkam Karma'. Desire leads to attachment to
action, from which bondage arises. Krishna says "Karmanyevaadhikarste
ma phaleshu kadachan" (Your right is only in doing actions,
the reslut is not in your control. Jnana
Yoga accomplishes this. The supreme knowledge is that the one who controls the
universe is the Supreme Soul (Purushottam) - 'Vasudevah
Sarvm'. Nishkama karma is possible
only when this knowledge is attained, otherwise man cannot
be separated from selfishness (sakam karma). Karma, the result of action, nature etc. everything is going on
under the control of Purushottam.
Bhakti yoga is the name of surrender to God. This is
called 'Ishvara-Pranidhan' in Yoga philosophy. If you
perform all your actions with the view of offering to God, then a human being can never do wrong. The sentence of the Gita is- 'Tatkurushva madarpanam'.
Many commentaries have been written in Sanskrit on the
Bhagavad Gita. Its translations, commentaries, interpretations, essays, bhaashy etc. have been written in almost
all the languages of the world. It is one of the most popular texts in the
world.
Mahabharata and Modern Society
The most important feature of Mahabharata is that it prescribes
an eternal religious system. This eternal religious system, though different from many points of
view, is inseparable. This fact can be understood in the sense that
Mahabharatakaras do not consider religion as a custom system. He accepts it as
changing with the changing society and times.
The religions propounded in Manusmriti and Ramayana
etc. are often orthodox, if a person is violated, he becomes a partaker of sin.
But Mahabharatkar says that religion is decided according to desh, kaal and person. Therefore, it cannot
be considered as orthodox. The eternal religion is also considered as Ved
Vyasa, which is trikala-bound and always remains the same. Violation of that is
certainly not forgivable. But each age also has a specific religion called Yug
Dharma. Similarly, there are Apadharma and Vishityadharma also.
In this way, Mahabharata makes today's society confident
of Pratiyut Dharma and not Dharma. By
saying 'Panchanaritanyhurpatakani', Pitamaha
Bhishma assures today's society that religion is not our tormented enemy,
but a friend who protects us in every situation.
Smriti texts
Smriti texts are
those texts of Indian tradition which have been written or compiled by a sage
in the form of code of conduct and legal regulations. It is believed that
because traditions have been compiled, they are called Smriti.
Varnashram
Varna System – In the Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda, it is said:
Brāhmaṇo'sya mukhamāsita
bahurājānyaḥ krtaḥ ।
urutadasya yadveśyaṃ padbhāyāṃ
śudro ajāyāt ॥
The meaning is that from
the mouth, arms, thighs and feet
of that great man, these four classes Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Shudra have been born respectively. It has been said
in Srimad Bhaga Gita that Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras have been created by the imperishable God from the
department of virtues and deeds.
cāturvarnyā māyā sṛṣṭaṃ
gunakāmābhābhāṣaḥ ।
tasyakatrimapi mā
vidhyakarataramavyam ॥
It is further stated in
the Srimad Bhagavad Gita that the four varnas which have been created from God
have different natures. Among them is the restraint of the conscience,
the suppression of the senses, the purification
of the inner and the outer ones, the suffering for the
sake of religion, forgiveness, the simplicity of the mind,
the senses and the body, the intellect,
the knowledge of the
scriptures and the experience of the Supreme Soul. Bravery, brilliance, patience, shrewdness,
steadfastness in battle, charity and mastery
are the nature of a Kshatriya. Farming, rearing cows,
buying and selling and true behavior is the nature of the
Vaishya. It is the nature of a shudra to serve all varnas.
śamō dāmāstapaḥ śūcha
kṣāntirajāmvameva ca ।
jñānaṃ
jñānaṃ jñānamāstikyaṃ
brahmakarma svabhābhāvajam ।
śurya tejōdhṛtirvākṣyaṃ yuddha
cāpyapalayanam ।
dānāmīśvarābhāvacha kṣātrāṃ karma
svabhāvāhājam ॥
kṛṣṭhā gaurakshya kaṇḍāyāṃ
vaiśyakarma svabhābhāvajam ।
parichayātmikaṃ karma śudrasyapi
svabhābhāvajam ॥
This is what Gautama has
said in Mitakshara: Brāhmaṇasāyādhikaṃ labdham kshatriyasya vijitam
nirviṣṭaṃ vaiśyaśudrayōḥ.
The time of the four varnashrama is:
· Brahmacharyashram -
Living with the sage for 25 years and receiving education, in which the
complete physical and mental development of a person is done.
· Grihastha Ashram - 25
to 50 is a period of earning money and moderate enjoyment by proper measures.
· Vanaprastha Ashram
- In this period of 50 to 75 years, getting ready for the last ashram by doing
social company and yoga etc.
· Sannyas Ashram - 75
to 100 years of effort for spiritual growth and liberation.
Purpose of Vedic and laukik Literature
The objectives of Vedic and laukik literature are as follows:
· Vedic literature helps in
understanding the trends of the then society.
· In this, there is
knowledge of sacrifice, deity, their nature, distinction etc. in religious
subjects.
· In laukik subjects, it helps in understanding human desires, crises
and their remedies, the nature of society, medicine, charity, marriage etc.
· laukik literature combines lyricism and
musicality. It has dimensions like narration of nakh-shikh, different forms of virah, sending messages to the beloved by the virhini
heroine.
· Spoken language is used in laukik literature. In this, the dialects of the people are used
instead of the poetic language of the time.
· laukik Sanskrit literature is
predominantly religious-laukik. It can be said to be
related to the world and the hereafter.
Note Points
· Vedic literature: A valuable literary
tradition written from religious and laukik subjects.
· The development of Vedic literature dates back to 6000 BC. From 800 BC Is.
·
The four stages
of development of Vedic literature are (i) Samhita, (ii) Brahmanas, (iii)
Aranyakas and (iv) Upanishads.
· Samhita - Collection of Vedic mantras.
· The four main forms of the Samhita are
(i)
Rigveda Samhita, (ii) Yajurveda Samhita,
(iii) Samaveda Samhita and (iv) Atharva Veda
Samhita.
· The four seasons of the Yajna - (i) Hota, (ii) Adhvaryu,
(iii) Udgata and (iv) Brahma.
· Sutra-Sahitya - Kalpa Grantha related to rituals.
· The main four distinctions of sutra
literature are (i) Shraut, (ii) Grihya,
(iii) Dharma and (iv) Shulva.
· Rigveda - A compilation of verses and a unique book
depicting the immediate civilization and culture of the Saptasindhu region.
Time - Time - 6000 BC From 1200 BC (According to various
scholars)
Mandal - 10
Sukta - 1028
Number of mantras - 10580
The available branches of Rigveda are Shakala, Ashvalayana and Shankhayana.
· Yajurveda - Ritual code.
Two forms of Yajurveda - (i) Krishnayajurveda and (ii) Shuklajurveda.
The Taittiriya Samhita, a famous branch of the
Krishnajurveda.
Other Samhitas of Krishnajurveda- (i) Maitrayani, (ii) Kathaka
and (iii) Kapishthala.
Vajasneyi Samhita, a famous branch of Suklayajurveda
Chapter -
40 in Shuklajurveda
· The Samaveda originated a composition
composed with mantras and verses. Sang Shastra from this Veda
The famous branch of Samaveda - the Kauthum branch.
· Atharvaveda compilation of mantras
related to commerce, abhichara etc. Spirituality, destruction of enmity, health-attainment, agricultural growth, marriage,
Other name of Atharvaveda - Atharvangiras Veda.
Sages - Atharva and Angira.
'Brahman' means associated with the Vedas
(Brahm). A Brahmin treatise on
ritualistic interpretation of Vedic mantras.
kand - 20
Sukta - 731
Mantra - 5849
· Brahmin texts related to
Rigveda-Samhita – (i) Aitareya
Brahmana and (ii) Kaushitaki Brahmana.
· Brahmana of Suklayajurveda-
Shatapatha.
· Brahmin Taittiriya of
Krishnayajurveda.
· Tandya, Shadvinsha, Jaminiya etc. Brahmin
texts related to Samaveda
· The Brahmin text of Atharvaveda -
Gopatha.
· Aranyak - The main book of
contemplation related to the Vedic rituals of the sages.
Available Aranyak
I. Rigvediya – (i) Aitareya
and (ii) Kaushitki.
II. Yajurvediya- (i) Brihadaranyak, (ii) Taittiriya and (iii) Maitrayaniya.
III. Samavediya - (i) Jaminiya and (ii) Chandogya.
· Upanishads - knowledge-oriented
spiritual texts of Vedic literature.
· Topics of Upanishad - Thoughts on Soul, Jiva, World,
God, Brahman, Moksha
etc.
· Main Upanishads – 13
· Ishavasyopanishad, Kenopanishad, Kathopanishad,
Prashnopanishad, Mundakopanishad, Mandukyopanishad, Taittariyopanishad, Aitareyopanishad, Chandogyopanishad, Brihadaranyakopanishad, Shvetashvataropanishad,
Kaushitki Upanishad, Maitrayani Upanishad.
· Vedanga - Texts created for the
pronunciation, meaning and
use of Vedic mantras.
· Six Distinctions of Vedanga –
1) Shiksha (method of pronunciation)
2) Kalpa (Rituals and Ethics)
3) Vyakarana (etymology of words)
4) Nirukta (interpretation and
interpretation of Vedic words)
5) Jyotisha (Period representation of Yajna)
6) Chhanda (determination and naming of
verse mantras based on the enumeration of letters)
Practice Questions
Q. 1. State the time of development of Vedic literature.
Q. 2. What is a Samhitas? Name the main Samhitas.
Q. 3. Mention the names and functions of the Ritvizas.
Q. 4. What was the purpose of composing the Brahmanic texts?
Q. 5. With which texts was the Vanaprastha Ashram associated?
Q. 6. Why are the Upanishads called Vedanta?
Q. 7. What is Vedanga and which scriptures have been taken under it?
Q. 8. Name the main distinctions of Kalpasutra.
Q. 9. Which sentiments of the Aryans are collected in the Rigveda?
Q. 10. How many mandalas are there in Rigveda?
Q. 11. What is a sukta?
Q. 12. Describe the number of hymns in Rigveda.
Q. 13. What is the total number of verses in Rigveda?
Q. 14. Which Mandal's verses are considered to be the oldest in Rigveda?
Q. 15. Which gods were given a prominent place in the Rigveda by the
Aryans?
Q. 16. Which worldly subjects are mainly described in Rigveda?
Q. 17. In which hymn is the creation process described in Rigveda?
Q. 18. Describe the main branches of Yajurveda.
Q. 19. Name the famous branch of Suklayajurveda.
Q. 20. What is the reason for the high popularity of Yajurveda?
Q. 21. Which ritvik recites the mantras of Samaveda?
Q. 22. Which songs of Samaveda are the highest?
Q. 23. Write about Samaveda in 50 words.
Q. 24. Name the Vedas which are counted in the Vedatrayi.
Q. 25. Who was the author of Atharvaveda?
Q. 26. What are the things mentioned in the mantras of Atharvaveda?
Q. 27. What do you mean by Brahmin texts?
Q. 28. Name the Brahmin associated with the Rigveda Samhita.
Q. 29. Whose composition is Aitareya Brahmana?
Q. 30. Which is the largest book among the Brahmin texts?
Q. 31. How did Yajnavalkya attain the Suklayajurveda?
Q. 32. What topics are mentioned in the Brahmin texts?
Q. 33. Where were the Aranyakas created?
Q. 34. What topics are discussed in the Aranyaks?
Q. 35. Mention the names of the main Aranyak texts.
Q. 36. What did Schopenhauer say about the Upanishads?
Q. 37. What was the number of original Upanishads? Write
their names.
Q. 38. In which Upanishad is the dialogue of Yama-Nachiketa found?
Q. 39. Which philosophy developed on the basis of the Upanishads?
Q. 40. Who was the author of Brahmasutra?
Q. 42. Who wrote the first commentary of the Upanishads?
Q. 43. Why was Nirukta compiled?
Q. 44. Explain the meaning of the word Vedanga?
Q. 45. Whose description is found in the book named Pratishakhya?
Q. 46. What do you understand by Kalpa and what are its main distinctions?
Q. 47. In which sutra is the rituals performed in the Grihyagni
described?
Q. 48. Why were the Addendum-texts composed?
Q. 49. What is Upajivya poetry?
Q. 50. In what ways are Ramayana and Mahabharata
different?
Q. 51. Who is the author of Ramayana?
Q. 52. How many versions of Ramayana are available
right now?
Q. 53. In which century is the period of composition of Ramayana
considered?
Q. 54. How many kandas are there in Ramayana?
Write the name of each.
Q. 55. How many verses are there in Ramayana?
Q. 56. What ideals of life have been presented by
Valmiki in Ramayana?
Q. 57. Why is Mahabharata called Shatasahasrisamhita?
Q. 58. Which world famous philosophical text is a
part of Mahabharata?
Q. 59. Who is the author of Mahabharata?
Q. 60. What is another name of Maharishi Vyas?
Q. 61. Name the stages of development of Mahabharata
?
Q. 62. Into how many festivals is Mahabharata
divided?
Q. 63. In which festival of Mahabharata is Gita
situated?
Q. 64. Explain the Varna system?
Q.
65. Explain the ashram system?
[1] In Vedic literature, Punjab was called 'Sapta
Sindhu'. This meant the land of seven rivers
instead of the land of five rivers. In the Vedic period, the area drained by seven
rivers was found in Punjab. These rivers are Sutlej, Jhelum,
Ravi, Beas, Chenab,
Saraswati and Indus.
[2] Ishavasyopanishad, Kenopanishad, Kathopanishad, Prashnopanishad,
Mundakopanishad, Mandukyopanishad, Taittariyopanishad, Aitareyopanishad, Chandogyopanishad, Brihadaranyakopanishad, Shvetashvataropanishad, Kaushitki Upanishad,
Maitrayani Upanishad.
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